The Taishô Era: Japan's Struggle for Democracy
I. Taishô (1912-26) Political Crisis (Taishô seihen)
A. Yoshihito, the Taishô Emperor (1879-1926)
1. reign of emperor increasingly symbolic
2. Prince Hirohito named regent in 1921
B. late-1912 PM Saionji Kinmochi (1849-1940)
1. Imperial Army minister resigned
2. Army refused to supply a new candidate
3. Saionji's downfall---forced to resign
C. Katsura Tarô (1848-1913) succeeded Saionji
1. ex-Chôshû samurai protege of Yamagata Aritomo
2. 1901-12 Saionji & Katsura alternated as PM
3. Previous achievements & policies
a. Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902)
b. Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)
c. Annexation of Korea (1910)
d. Oppressive stance towards leftist groups
i. High Treason Incident of 1910 (taigyaku jiken)
ii. Kôtoku Shôsui & 24 others executed for plot to assassinate
Emperor
Meiji
e. recognized as a genrô "elder statesman"
4. Navy demanded expanded budget for new battleships
5. Katsura: Imperial Edict demanding a Naval Minister
D. Movement for the Protection of Constitutional Government (kensei yôgo
undô)
1. anti-hanbatsu--esp Chôshû's dominance
2. Feb. 10, 1913 massive demonstrations against Katsura
3. Katsura died shortly after his cabinet fell
E. PM: Yamamoto Gonnohyôe (1852-1933) ex-Satsuma
II. "Taishô demokurashii"
A. Relative decline of genrô "elder statesmen"
1. Itô Hirobumi (1909)
2. Yamagata Aritomo (1922)
B. Theories of Democracy, Imperial System
1. Yoshino Sakuzô (1878-1933)Tôdai Prof of Politics
a. minshu shugi 民主主義 "democracy" or "popular soverignty"
irrelevant to Japan since sovereignty resides in the people
b. minpon shugi 民本主義 Yoshino' skind of clever term for democracy--makes people the
basic concer. So if not "Governtment OF the People" or "BY the People," but could be "For the People"
c. urged limitation of non-constitutional entities like Privy Council,
Army, etc.
d. supported labor movement and unions; founded The New Person Society (新人会) which became a pretty radical, Marxist tinged studetn group
e. hecriticized Japan's treatment of Korea
2. Minobe Tatsukichi (1873-1948) Tôdai Law
a. tennô kikan setsu or "Organ Theory"
Minobe Tatsukichi (law prof.): 'organ theory' of emperor which in legal theory calls into qestion the theory of absolute sovereignty, i.e., if the emperor is mentioned in the constitution and other legal documents then, he is, by definition, a aprt of the legal discourse and therefore not above it. Rather, his role has been defined and therefore "limited" under the law. This theory not controversial when it first appeared in 1921 or so but by . 1935 popular criticism of Minobe intensifies. He dares to "insult" the sacred and inviolable nature of the monarch.
i. sovereignty belongs to the state
ii. emperor is highest organ of state
b. So in 1935 Minobe attacked for lese majesty, his writings banned; 1936 attempted
assassination
3. Hozumi Yatsuka (1860-1912)- more -traditional view
C. First Party Cabinet--Hara Kei (1856-1921) Three things about Hara:
--he valued his "commoner" (heimin) status
--was from Iwate, losing side of restoration; so he is not from Satsuma or Choshu; became a roman catholic
--came up thru the ranks as party leader and a newspaper man because he needed an alternative route to power/influence
1. Itô founded Seiyûkai (Friends of Constitutional Govt Party)
in 1900
2. Hara rose as a "party functionary;" not from Satcho
3. 1914 becomes the leader of Seiyûkai
4. inflation--1918 Rice Riots: Hara-Seiyûkai cabinet -- obviously the Rice Riots got the attention of the Oligarchs and they thought they should have a response
5. Korean Independence Movement, leftists suppressed
6. Nov. 1921 murdered by an ultranationalist over alleged corruption in
his cabinet (Washington Conference 1922)
D. Universal Manhood Suffrage
1. Universal Suffrage League (1897-1911) claimed extension of vote would
enhance international standing
2. Kenseikai "Constitutional Govt. Party"
a. founded by supporters of Katsura Tarô in 1913 after the Taishô
Pol. Crisis
b. 1925 Kenseikai Universal Suffrage bill passed
i. all males over 25--no tax qualification
ii. electorate increased from 3 to 25 million - parties that appeal to the workers and the masses appear: The Japan Proletarian Party, the Farmer-Labor Party, social Democratic Party, Proletarian Masses Party
c. Peace Preservation Law of 1925
Left-Wing Movements--Socialism, Communism, Labor Unions - Target of March 1928 round up by Gen. Tanaka Giichi, Seiyukai PM
September 1931 the Manchurian Incident - sends Japan down the road to "The Fifteen Year War" - a major turning point!
E. 1932.05.15 May 15 Incident: Army coup attempt; kills last civilian PM Inukai Tsuyoshi: Army injecting itself more into politics!
= when coup fails, that evening, Ketsumeidan member wounds Nishida Mitsugu
= open trial
F. 1933.04 The Takigawa Incident: Takigawa Yukitoki (Kyoto U. law prof.) called a leftist, his works banned;
19 faculty resign. Studetns protest, Minister of Education sends in armed police.
In Kurosawa's first postwar film, No Regrets for our Youth, he uses the Takigawa Incident as a jumping off spot to tell the story of idealsitic young people vilified for their leftwing, liberal opposition to the Manchurian Incident, the rise of Fascism, etc.
G. International Context of Japan's road to War -- Cooperationor "Go It Alone"?
1. WWI and the Allied Effort
a. Aug. 23, 1914 Japan declared war on Germany
b. occup. Shandong, Marshalls, Marianas, Carolines
c. economic boon--armaments supplied to Europe
2. Twenty-One Demands presented to China in Jan. 1915
5 Categories:
I-IV recognized Japan's special rights and privileges
in German concessions, Manchuria, Iron mines in N. China.
Category V would
have placed Japanese "advisors" at all levels of Chinese administration--politics,
economy, military, police; Japanese own land where built hospitals, schools,
etc.; arms purchased from Japan only; Japan does the RR construction for
China coast, ie. ALL SPECIAL POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND TERITORIAL PRIVILIGES.
a. transfer of German rights to Japan
b. extension of leases in South Manchuria, Mongolia
c. Japanese political, military, economic advisors
The 21 Demands leaked to press and Chinese and world stunned = National
Day of Humiliation!
3. Treaty of Versailles (1919) racial equality clause
a. Shandong and other German possessions given
b. catalyzed May 4th Movement in Beijing and later New thought and Cultur Movement -- an intellectual re-invigoration of China
4. Washington Naval Limitation Treaty (Feb. 1922)
A. Four Power (Pacific) Treaty--U.S., U.K., France and Japan
i. to replace Anglo-Japanese Alliance
ii. to guarantee each others rights and possessions in the Pacific
B. 5 Power Naval Arms Limitation Treaty --add Italy
i. 5:5:3 ratio in naval tonnage for US/Brt/Jpn (US,UK are 2-ocean
navies)
ii. No new UK bases east of HK, No new US bases West of Pearl Harbor
so Japan gets security in home waters
iii. Chinese sovereignty restored to Shandong peninsula in exchange
for economic privileges
iv. non-intervention Chinese domestic afairs
C. 9 Power Treaty includes Germany, Spain, Portugal, Italy and China
i. respect for Chinese territorial integrity
ii. no fishing in Chinese troubled waters
iii. to US meant old Open Door philsosphy
iv. to Japan, meant special privileges are recognized by this treaty
So the same treaty meant different things to the signatories.
5. London Naval Conference (1930)