Was the Meiji Restoration a Revolution?
The word REVOLUTION derives from Latin revolvere, to turn again , ppf.
revolutus, derived
noun revolutio, the act of turning
In a historical-political context, the word revolution is used with the meaning
of a state and society
turning (upside down), i.e. a process resulting in a restructuring of state
and society, replacing the old
stratified society by a new order of society, and establishing new government
organizations and positions
replacing the old.
When these revolutions are compared, there are a few points they have in common
:
- most revolutions appeared in states where political authority had been monopolized
by the capitol/the king
- the revolutions unfolded in a series of phases, which were not preplanned
by anybody
- the revolutions began because large segments of the population agreed on overturning
the old system
- new political groups (parties, factions) emerged during the revolution; changes
in these factions/parties
often lead to the revolution entering a new phase
- the violence applied to overturn the Ancien Regime later was turned by one
revolutionary faction
against another.
For revolutions it was typical that they often had difficulties in settling,
establishing a new, lasting
tradition. Born by violence, revolutionary regimes were often consumed by violence.
The Victorian Web has an extremely concise summary of the French Revolution
which includes the observation that:
The French Revolution was not only a crucial event considered in the context
of Western history, but was also, perhaps the single most crucial influence
on British intellectual, philosophical, and political life in the nineteenth
century. In its early stages it portrayed itself as a triumph of the forces
of reason over those of superstition and privilege, and as such it was welcomed
not only by English radicals like Thomas Paine and William Godwin and William
Blake, who, characteristically, saw it as a symbolic act which presaged the
return of humanity to the state of perfection from which it had fallen away--but
by many liberals as well, and by some who saw it, with its declared emphasis
on "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity," as being analgous to the
Glorious Revolution of 1688: as it descended into the madness of the Reign
of Terror, however, many who had initially greeted it with enthusiasm--Wordsworth
and Coleridge, for example--who came to regard their early support as, in
Coleridge's words, a "sqeaking baby trumpet of sedition"--had second
thoughts.
The other great Revolution was the Russian Revolution for which
there is a comprehensive gateway page at:
The "point" of these kinds of comparisons is to help
us realize that both the French and Russian revolutions were violent upheavals
aimed not just at tearing down an old political system, but actually at destroying
a monarchy and, in the case of France (and later Stalin's Russia), an entire
social class. Japan, in this sense, was different, for as Thomas Smith's article
argues, the revolutonary impetus in Japan was not necessarily only from below,
but came from within the lower echelons of the aristircratic or ruling class
itself. As Smith notes: "How different the story must have been had the
warriors behaved as one would expect of an aristocracy, if they had used their
monopoly of political and military power to defend rather than change the existing
order." (381) Therefore, the aristocratic revolutionaries in Japan had
different objectives from revolutionists in France and Russia. Do we see a ruling
class destroyed in Japan? Were elites being systematically eliminated?
You may enjoy this summary below--which I am not necessarily
endorsing--adapted from:
“The Meiji Revolution”
by Calvin W. Lew
September 28, 1995
The Meiji Revolution or “Restoration” is one of the single most important
events in modern Japanese history. This “revolution” greatly affected
the events of history within Japan as well as Japan’s relations with outsiders.
With seeds for the “restoration” brewing in the last years of the
Tokugawa Shogunate, the Meiji Restoration ultimately exploded with changes that
changed the character of the Japanese nation forever. That is a country that
was confident at home and ready to encounter the world; a country unique among
its Asian contemporaries that was willing and seemingly able to face the world
as a nation among equals.
For over two centuries before the “restoration” the Tokugawa clan
controlled Japan; its power and dominance secure. But with the coming of the
kurobune, Commodore Perry and other barbarians in the 1850s, opposition to Edo
began to arise. Supporters of sonno joi, the policy of “Revere the emperor
and repel the barbarians,” saw the Shogun’s inability to extract the
barbarians as cause and a chance to “restore” Kyoto’s prominence
once again.
Especially angered of the Shogun’s indecisiveness and allowing the barbarians
within the gate were the shishi, or the “men of spirit.” These
“angry young men” were a segment of the samurai within the clan domains.
They were aggressive and more than willing to use force as a means toward their
objectives. Eventually, more opposition arose and began stirring. The Satsuma,
Choshu and other han began to mobilize and modernize their military forces.
A precursor of the revolution to come could be seen in a slogan originated from
the young Toshimichi Okubo of the Satsuma clan: Fukoku Kyohei or “Enrich
the country, strengthen the army” -- one of the main themes of the Meiji
era to come. In the last days of the Shogunate, the opposition’s armies
began to modernize; a trend that will continue far after Meiji.
The groups opposed to the Tokugawa finally succeeded in a coup d’état
on 3 January 1868. They later legitimized their “Revolution” by using
the term the “Meiji Restoration.” That is restoring rule away from
the Shogunate and back to the Emperor (at this point in time, Emperor Mutsuhito,
whose reign name is Meiji or “enlightened rule”). The Revolution or
Restoration began by eliminating remaining opposition Tokugawa in several campaigns,
dismantling the bakufu’s domains, and bringing legitimacy to the Revolution.
Thus sixteen year old Emperor Mutsuhito was led before his “subjects”
on several grand trips.
But what is the “Meiji Restoration?” More important
than the actual “restoration” of the Emperor and the “revolution”
against the Shogunate, is the meaning of the Restoration and the effects of
the Meiji era on the Japanese nation. The Meiji Revolution continued far beyond
3 January 1868. This continuing Revolution brought about significant changes
to the Japanese culture in terms of education, social order of the entire country,
and mass modernization. This whirlwind of mobilization touched all aspects of
society. One of the reasons why Japan “revolutionized” so early and
swiftly while other Asian countries were behind is because rather than gradual
changes, these national directives of the Meiji Revolution were commanded top-down;
from Edo, now Tokyo, the historic center of power. Major reforms of the Meiji
era included: compulsory universal education (in 1890 the Imperial Rescript
on Education declared “loyalty and filial piety ... [to be] the glory of
the fundamental character of Our Empire, and ... the source of Our education”),
universal conscription into the military (national duty eventually was considered
an honor and an avenue for social mobility), mechanisms for local self government,
the Meiji constitution with the establishment of the Diet and the guarantee
of male suffrage, and the encouragement of capitalism and markets. Eventually
emerging were also the zaibatsu; the business conglomerates existing between
the Meiji Restoration and 1945. These family-owned, subsidiary controlling holding
companies often expanded their operations through ties to the Meiji government.
These revolutionary ideas of the Meiji Restoration meant that Japan had the
environment for mass national mobilization and rapid modernization; as opposed
to the slow crawl of other Asian countries. In terms of the Japan we know now,
the Meiji Restoration with its reforms formed the basis of the modernization
of pre-World War II Japanese industrialization; and also the makings and experience
for the post-war “Japanese miracle” in our time.
Another meaning and significance of the Revolution can be seen by examining
how Japan responded to Western intrusion as compared to China’s response.
In fact, by viewing China’s situation as the great Middle Kingdom being
strangled in the grip of heavily armed and hostile barbarians, Japan may have
formed a different mind set that eventually led to the Revolution. The Chinese
mind set is that of perceived self-superiority of the Middle Kingdom’s
culture as opposed to that of the inferior barbarians. When Western forces showed
their modern military might, Peking was so far and secluded (geographically
as well as mentally), that it thought such weapons were fanciful. Thus, China
remained complacent and its responses were few and futile.
Japan’s Western intrusion in comparison was by great black
ships sailing straight towards Edo through Edo Bay. Immediately the Shogun,
and eventually the rest of the country, realized the importance of modernization
of the country and the military; if not, then Japan may suffer the same fate
as China. Also, Japan’s initial encounter with the West (not counting the
Portuguese and such centuries before and others) was actually rather pleasant.
Commodore Perry was very delicate yet firm in his initial dealings; and offered
some rather amazing technological gifts. Thus, Japan’s initial inability
to “repel the barbarians” and Perry and Townsend Harris’ relatively
unforceful demands became a blessing in disguise. Fortunately for Japan, its
leaders had the foresight to recognize the importance of modernization.
Thus, this “new” Japan was in a position to win in hostile situations
with its neighbors; in a war with China (1894-1895) and surprisingly in a war
with Russia (1904-1905). The causes for the Sino-Japanese War had to do with
Korea and its historical role with China and its relations with Japan. Although
considering itself somewhat an autonomous nation, Korea has historically been
a tributary state of China. At this time, Japan began to have territorial tendencies
toward Korea, as well as overwhelming Korea economically. Thus, delicate tensions
arose between China and Japan; including a treaty that one country (China or
Japan) must notify the other if moving troops into Korea. To complicate matters,
internal political turmoil began erupting in Korea. The immediate cause of the
war was when popular protests and uprisings occurred in Korea demanding an end
in rice exports to Japan and a restructuring of power and privilege in Korea.
Korea’s King asked for China’s help to quell the rebels, and China
moved in troops (after notifying Japan). Japan immediately invaded, destroyed
the Chinese fleet, captured Taiwan and occupied Korea.
Tensions about another East Asian territory led to another Japanese War; namely
Russia’s continued troop deployment in Manchuria, despite China’s
and Japan’s request for Russia to withdraw. Russia argued that its railroads
must be protected. Russia’s new Far Eastern Viceroy remained unmoved as
well as uninformed of Japan’s new capabilities. Finally in 1904 Japan launched
an attack and sank the Russian fleet in port, fought a very costly and hard
won land campaign, and completely destroyed another Russian fleet from the Baltic
in a classic naval battle where the Japanese fleet “crossed the T.”
These victories increased Japan’s confidence at home with nationalistic
pride. Finally, Japan expected the West to treat Japan with the respect of an
equal “imperial” power. But, the Japanese would be disappointed.
The Meiji Restoration and its consequential events would have effects reaching
far outside Japan’s borders. As Japan exerted its independence and headed
toward Western imperial equivalency, Japan acted as a role model for other Asian
countries to emulate; that it was possible for an Asian country to break the
bonds of Western powers. Its eventual industrial and military capacity would
thrust Japan and all around her into other more major wars in the next “pacific”
century. And finally, another legacy of the Meiji Restoration would be the internal
Revolution in Japan that enabled it to create the economic revolution of the
next century and beyond.