Political Metaphors

Writing Assignment and Oral Presentation Guidelines

Theme and Thesis

The theme of the paper should elaborate on how and why metaphors frame political issues, shape policy debates, influence public discourse, and persuade government officials and the population at large to act in specified ways. There are an infinite number of ways of analyzing the formulation, implementation, and implications of political metaphors which allows students to tailor their paper to their interests regarding political discourse. Some examples of metaphors that one might hear in political discourse are as follows (each of these are hypothetical statements based on some common metaphors in modern political discourse):

• “Governments should strive for transparency.”
• “We need to wage a war on poverty.”
• “It is important to follow a policy of containment against the spread of Soviet communism.”
• “Our goal is to reduce the output of greenhouse gasses.”
• “China must experience a Great Leap Forward.”
• “A worldwide effort is needed to solve the problem of fragile states.”
• “An essential part of European integration is building a common European home.”
• “The European Union must address the problem of the democratic deficit.”
• “A solution must be found to cure society’s ills.”

Notice that these metaphors correspond to some common ways that politics as a realm of human interaction is conceptualized:

• Information about the work of government should be readily available.
• There are political problems large enough that they need to be addressed aggressively.
• Countries occupy a physical space and therefore certain political practices should be confined to those spaces.
• The natural world lends itself to human management.
• Politics involves movement through temporal space.
• Government involves a physical structure.
• Government’s physical structure can be manufactured.
• Politics exists as a finite amount of something.
• There exists in politics corporeal bodies.

Clearly the above is only a very small list and does not represent an exhaustive summary of the ways in which politics can be conceptualized metaphorically.

Notice also that these metaphors illustrate a variety of functions metaphors provide as a way to conceptualize abstract ideas (again, this is not an exhaustive list):

• Metaphors can emphasize an idea and make it important or prominent.
• Metaphors can identify a problem that needs to be solved.
• Metaphors can make real an abstract principle.
• Metaphors can simplify a complex idea.
• Metaphors can reflect certain untested assumptions.
• Metaphors can be ambiguous or imprecise.
• Metaphors can to a greater or lesser extent draw on people’s prior experiences.
• Metaphors can create awareness of an issue.
• Metaphors can encourage discovery.

In other words, writing the paper for this course involves three main tasks—finding a commonly used metaphor in political discourse, analyzing the way(s) in which politics are conceptualized through this metaphor, and arriving at a conclusion about the role the metaphor plays in the politics of one or more countries or in international affairs.

Conceptual Metaphors as Elements of Political Discourse

Metaphors are among the most studied and analyzed linguistic devices in the history of human communication. A metaphor is a form of analogy but it is a specific type of analogy. Metaphors trigger a mental association between two things not immediately apparent through overt comparison by explicit analogy. In the “conceptual theory” of metaphors pioneered by the cognitive linguists George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, humans make sense of the world metaphorically when the patterns experienced in one domain are structured through language to provide meaning to another domain. Conceptual metaphors thus are linguistic representations of human experiences that then expresses those experiences in ways that are intelligible to the mind. For example, the concept of “progress” through life is the metaphorical representation of the human experience of movement through space. This helps us understand, for instance, why people often refer to changes in romantic relationships as “moving forward” or “backwards” in those relationships depending on whether they are becoming better or worse.

Conceptual metaphors in political discourse are as ubiquitous as they are in romantic relationships. As the examples listed above illustrate, conceptual metaphors in politics draw on familiar experiences that represent abstract ideas. Some metaphors in politics are deployed deliberately to influence people, change people’s minds, or otherwise bring about a desired political end. For example, during the Cold War many foreign policy leaders in the United States warned of “falling dominoes” in southeast Asia while others cautioned of a “quagmire” that would draw the United States into military conflicts from which it could not be safely extricated. Other political metaphors are so pervasive that they take on the appearance of literal expression inasmuch as they are used almost reflexively or unconsciously to conceptualize an issue. For instance, the notion of politics as existing in various states of equilibrium has become almost second nature such that people think of the need to “balance” competing interests in a political debate or perceive international relations in terms of a “balance of power.”

Identifying a Conceptual Metaphor and Developing a Paper Topic

The first task for writing the paper for this class is to identify a conceptual metaphor used in political discourse. The metaphor could be one that has been used deliberately to frame an issue or one that has become an almost unconscious part of everyday political discourse (see above). In choosing a metaphor students can draw on any aspect of politics in any country or as it applies to a global issue or international relations. The metaphor could be from politics in the United States or  politics in any one or more other countries; it could be part of the discourse of European integration or regional politics elsewhere in the world; it could be part of the discourse of an issue such international environmental politics, human rights, foreign aid, etc.; it could be used in the language of foreign policy and  international relations. These are just some suggestions of the places students could look for a metaphor worthy of study.

In choosing a metaphor to study students do not necessarily need to identify an original metaphor that no one else has ever written on before. As noted, metaphors are a common and pervasive feature of political discourse and therefore it is unlikely students will find a metaphor that no one has noticed before. However, there should be something original about each student’s analysis and therefore a plausible approach to the project could be to study the application of an existing metaphor to a specific issue. For example, it has been common in many countries for politicians to declare “war” on any number of issues such as the “war on poverty” or the “war against drugs.” A student in his or her paper could focus on a specific way that the “war” metaphor is applied to some aspect of politics in one or more countries.

Students also could undertake a comparative analysis of a specific political metaphor. For example, scholars and politicians alike have for centuries referred to the population of a country (or any other political jurisdiction) as the “body politic.” A student could write about how the “body” politic as a conceptual metaphor operates differently in one country compared to another, or how that concept in one country changes over time. In analyzing a political metaphor students might also ask who articulates the metaphor and for what purpose, consciously or unconsciously. Are those who articulate a metaphor leaders, political opponents, interest groups, social movements, outside experts, revolutionaries? Questions such as these offer potentially useful avenues by which to develop a paper topic.

Students should also consider counterfactuals. That is, would we expect a different outcome if different political discourse were used? This is an essential ingredient of any analytical social science paper.

Research and Empirical Evidence

Evidence to support the paper’s thesis can be about any aspect of metaphors in political discourse. Relevant topics/issue areas that could serve as the paper’s subject matter include, but are not limited to, the following (i.e., this is only a partial list):

• Economic policy
• Social welfare issues
• Political participation via political parties, referenda, interest groups, social movements, etc.
• Questions of identity including race, ethnicity, religion, culture, language, etc.
• Political change
• Legislative politics
• Executive politics
• Law, justice matters, and the courts
• Relations among different branches of government
• Relations between central governments and regional governments
• Protest and revolution
• Foreign policy
• International relations
• War and international security
• International organizations/institutions/cooperation
• International economics and trade
• Global environmental issues
• Global human rights
• Foreign aid and global charitable organizations

Empirical evidence for the paper can be acquired simply by reading daily news accounts of politics and policy. Additionally, students can find ample information about politics and policy through books and articles readily available in the Hatfield Library and online as well as newspaper and other news organization archives also readily available via library and online resources.

Theoretical background on metaphors in general and in politics can be found in the assigned text for the class, however students are encouraged to research other scholarly materials on the nature of metaphors and their role in politics.

Organization

Analytical essays of the nature assigned for this course typically adhere to some variation on the following organization:

• Introduction
• Brief statement of empirical issue to be explained
• Review of theoretical literature, i.e., schools of thought that might explain the empirical issue
• Presentation of evidence, facts, and information
• Analysis of theoretical literature in light of evidence, facts, and information
• Conclusion

Although, as noted above, there are variations on the standard outline of an analytical essay, for this project the organization of the paper probably would work best if it followed this order:

I. Introduction

    A. Summary of the topic and thesis statement

II. The political or policy issue that will be studied and made intelligible through an analysis of political metaphors

    A. Brief description of whatever aspect of politics is under investigation

III. Overview of theoretical literature on metaphors in general and metaphors in politics

    A. Course readings and other scholarly texts on metaphors

IV. Evidence of how the conceptual metaphor chosen for the paper influences politics

    A. Description of the conceptual metaphor

    B. Description of who articulates that conceptual metaphor and for what reason

        1. e.g., leaders, political opponents, interest groups, social movements, outside experts, revolutionaries, etc.

    C. Description of how the conceptual metaphor is formulated

    D. Description of how the conceptual metaphor is implemented

    E. Description of how the conceptual metaphor shapes politics and/or policy

    F. Description of the influence and impact of the conceptual metaphor on politics and/or policy

    G. Description of how the metaphor is found in comparable instances, cases, situations

V. Analysis

    A. Reflection on how the study of this particular conceptual metaphor furthers an understanding of the role of metaphors in politics

    B. Consideration of the broader use of this particular conceptual metaphor in comparable instances, cases, situations

VI. Conclusion

    A. Implications for further study

Each draft of the paper should be divided into sections and the sections should be indicated by descriptive subject headings specific to each student’s own paper (e.g., not just generic headings in the sample outline above).

Multiple Drafts

Three drafts (plus a peer editing draft) of the paper will be handed in over the course of the semester. The paper represents a single analytical and research project to be revised over the course of multiple iterations. Therefore, the paper’s thesis could and should be sharpened, revised, or even altered to take account of additional research and analysis conducted after each draft. Additionally, over the course of multiple drafts students should take the opportunity to alter the order of sections or subsections to accentuate the theoretical and empirical propositions and conclusions, add or remove sources to the literature review, evaluate additional existing claims, add or delete additional or unnecessary empirical information, rectify errors of analysis in the evaluation section, strengthen or clarify the introduction and/or conclusion, correct errors of grammar and syntax and improve the prose.

Length

There is no required minimum or maximum length for each draft of the paper. There is an old adage (variously attributed to Abraham Lincoln or J. D. Salinger) that, in answer to the question “how long should a man’s legs be?,” the answer is “long enough to reach the ground.” In other words, each student’s paper should be long enough to accomplish its task (no longer, and no shorter). Having said that, it is most likely that a good first draft will range between 2000 and 4000 words (7 to 13 pages), a good second draft probably will fall into the 3000 to 5000 word range (10 to 17 pages), and a good final draft most will most likely run between 4000 to 6000 words (13 to 20 pages), all give or take. Each draft of the paper should include a title (on a title page), an abstract, and a bibliography.

Abstract

Each draft of the paper should be accompanied by an abstract that precedes the main text. An abstract is a short (typically one paragraph) summary of a paper and its findings. Most scholarly journals include abstracts that accompany published articles. Students should consult some scholarly journals of political science and related disciplines to familiarize themselves with the standard method for crafting a one-paragraph abstract.

Style

Students may use any accepted style (e.g., Chicago, MLA, etc.) in formatting the paper. Students should ensure, however, that they use whatever style they choose consistently throughout the paper.

Grading and Deadline

Because the main written work for this class is a research paper with an extended period to complete it, assignments handed in late will be assessed a third of a grade penalty for every day after the deadline they are submitted (for example, an “A–” paper handed in one day late will be marked down a third of a grade to a “B+”). Papers are due no later than the start of class on the day they are due (or the equivalent if the paper is due on a day on which class is not regularly held). The only exceptions made will be for serious illness.

Evaluation of Written Work

An excellent paper will demonstrate excellence in the following:

• It will be well written in terms of prose, grammar, and syntax.
• It will be well organized and follow a logical progression of thoughts.
• It will have a clearly stated and cogent thesis.
• Its thesis will be supported by logical arguments.
• Its thesis will be balanced with counter-arguments and/or competing explanations.
• It will cite relevant course readings and other material as relevant.
• It will be illustrated with empirical examples and other factual material as relevant.
• It will have the appropriate scope, i.e., not too narrow or broad in focus.
• It will adopt an analytical (not partisan) tone unless otherwise directed.

Grading Criteria

Generally speaking, when affixing grades to essays and other assignments, the instructor will adhere to the qualitative assessments associated with letter grades as specified in the CLA Catalog:

A = Excellent
B = Good
C = Satisfactory
D = Below Standard
F = Failing

See http://www.willamette.edu/cla/catalog/resources/policies/

Note on Originality

Everything you submit must be your own written work. You may not copy, borrow, or appropriate other authors’ work, unless you are doing so in the form of a cited quotation. All references to other authors’ work must be fully documented in the form of citations and/or footnotes, and direct quotes must be indicated as such with quotation marks. Suspected cases of plagiarism will be pursued vigorously and appropriate penalties (including an “F” for the course) will be applied.

Willamette's Plagiarism and Cheating Policy

Oral Presentation

In their oral presentations students should convey to the rest of the class the themes developed in their papers. The purpose of the oral presentation is to succinctly convey in speech the ideas that are laid out in greater depth and detail in writing. One way to think about the oral presentation is to imagine that you are explaining your project to a reasonably well-educated person who has not taken this particular class. Each section of the paper should be included in the oral presentation (the presentation in most cases will follow the organization of the paper), but technical details (particularly dealing with theoretical material) in most cases should be simplified so that someone who has not necessarily studied political discourse can still make sense of the analytical perspectives that inform the paper’s thesis.

Visual presentation software (e.g., Powerpoint, Prezi) may be used for the oral presentation but is not required. If you do use visual presentation software, remember that text-heavy slides typically are not effective as they distract the audience. Keep it simple. Also, it is each student’s responsibility to make sure files and devices used for visual presentation are compatible with the electronic devices installed in the classroom.