Political
Metaphors
Writing Assignment and Oral
Presentation Guidelines
Theme and Thesis
The theme of the paper should elaborate on how and why metaphors frame
political issues, shape policy debates, influence public discourse, and
persuade government officials and the population at large to act in
specified ways. There are an infinite number of ways of analyzing the
formulation, implementation, and implications of political metaphors
which allows students to tailor their paper to their interests
regarding political discourse. Some examples of metaphors that one
might hear in political discourse are as follows (each of these are
hypothetical statements based on some common metaphors in modern
political discourse):
• “Governments should strive for transparency.”
• “We need to wage a war
on poverty.”
• “It is important to follow a policy of containment against the spread of
Soviet communism.”
• “Our goal is to reduce the output of greenhouse gasses.”
• “China must experience a Great
Leap Forward.”
• “A worldwide effort is needed to solve the problem of fragile states.”
• “An essential part of European integration is building a common European home.”
• “The European Union must address the problem of the
democratic deficit.”
• “A solution must be found to cure society’s ills.”
Notice that these metaphors correspond to some common ways that
politics as a realm of human interaction is conceptualized:
• Information about the work of government should be readily
available.
• There are political problems large enough that they need to be
addressed aggressively.
• Countries occupy a physical space and therefore certain
political practices should be confined to those spaces.
• The natural world lends itself to human management.
• Politics involves movement through temporal space.
• Government involves a physical structure.
• Government’s physical structure can be manufactured.
• Politics exists as a finite amount of something.
• There exists in politics corporeal bodies.
Clearly the above is only a very small list and does not represent an
exhaustive summary of the ways in which politics can be conceptualized
metaphorically.
Notice also that these metaphors illustrate a variety of functions
metaphors provide as a way to conceptualize abstract ideas (again, this
is not an exhaustive list):
• Metaphors can emphasize an idea and make it important or
prominent.
• Metaphors can identify a problem that needs to be solved.
• Metaphors can make real an abstract principle.
• Metaphors can simplify a complex idea.
• Metaphors can reflect certain untested assumptions.
• Metaphors can be ambiguous or imprecise.
• Metaphors can to a greater or lesser extent draw on
people’s prior experiences.
• Metaphors can create awareness of an issue.
• Metaphors can encourage discovery.
In other words, writing the paper for this course involves three main
tasks—finding a commonly used metaphor in political discourse,
analyzing the way(s) in which politics are conceptualized through this
metaphor, and arriving at a conclusion about the role the metaphor
plays in the politics of one or more countries or in international
affairs.
Conceptual Metaphors as Elements of
Political Discourse
Metaphors are among the most studied and analyzed linguistic devices in
the history of human communication. A metaphor is a form of analogy but
it is a specific type of analogy. Metaphors trigger a mental
association between two things not immediately apparent through overt
comparison by explicit analogy. In the “conceptual theory”
of metaphors pioneered by the cognitive linguists George Lakoff and
Mark Johnson, humans make sense of the world metaphorically when the
patterns experienced in one domain are structured through language to
provide meaning to another domain. Conceptual metaphors thus are
linguistic representations of human experiences that then expresses
those experiences in ways that are intelligible to the mind. For
example, the concept of “progress” through life is the
metaphorical representation of the human experience of movement through
space. This helps us understand, for instance, why people often refer
to changes in romantic relationships as “moving forward” or
“backwards” in those relationships depending on whether
they are becoming better or worse.
Conceptual metaphors in political discourse are as ubiquitous as they
are in romantic relationships. As the examples listed above illustrate,
conceptual metaphors in politics draw on familiar experiences that
represent abstract ideas. Some metaphors in politics are deployed
deliberately to influence people, change people’s minds, or
otherwise bring about a desired political end. For example, during the
Cold War many foreign policy leaders in the United States warned of
“falling dominoes” in southeast Asia while others cautioned
of a “quagmire” that would draw the United States into
military conflicts from which it could not be safely extricated. Other
political metaphors are so pervasive that they take on the appearance
of literal expression inasmuch as they are used almost reflexively or
unconsciously to conceptualize an issue. For instance, the notion of
politics as existing in various states of equilibrium has become almost
second nature such that people think of the need to
“balance” competing interests in a political debate or
perceive international relations in terms of a “balance of
power.”
Identifying a Conceptual Metaphor and
Developing a Paper Topic
The first task for writing the paper for this class is to identify a
conceptual metaphor used in political discourse. The metaphor could be
one that has been used deliberately to frame an issue or one that has
become an almost unconscious part of everyday political discourse (see
above). In choosing a metaphor students can draw on any aspect of
politics in any country or as it applies to a global issue or
international relations. The metaphor could be from politics in the
United States or politics in any one or more other countries; it
could be part of the discourse of European integration or regional
politics elsewhere in the world; it could be part of the discourse of
an issue such international environmental politics, human rights,
foreign aid, etc.; it could be used in the language of foreign policy
and international relations. These are just some suggestions of
the places students could look for a metaphor worthy of study.
In choosing a metaphor to study students do not necessarily need to
identify an original metaphor that no one else has ever written on
before. As noted, metaphors are a common and pervasive feature of
political discourse and therefore it is unlikely students will find a
metaphor that no one has noticed before. However, there should be
something original about each student’s analysis and therefore a
plausible approach to the project could be to study the application of
an existing metaphor to a specific issue. For example, it has been
common in many countries for politicians to declare “war”
on any number of issues such as the “war on poverty” or the
“war against drugs.” A student in his or her paper could
focus on a specific way that the “war” metaphor is applied
to some aspect of politics in one or more countries.
Students also could undertake a comparative analysis of a specific
political metaphor. For example, scholars and politicians alike have
for centuries referred to the population of a country (or any other
political jurisdiction) as the “body politic.” A student
could write about how the “body” politic as a conceptual
metaphor operates differently in one country compared to another, or
how that concept in one country changes over time. In analyzing a
political metaphor students might also ask who articulates the metaphor
and for what purpose, consciously or unconsciously. Are those who
articulate a metaphor leaders, political opponents, interest groups,
social movements, outside experts, revolutionaries? Questions such as
these offer potentially useful avenues by which to develop a paper
topic.
Students should also consider counterfactuals. That is, would we expect
a different outcome if different political discourse were used? This is
an essential ingredient of any analytical social science paper.
Research and Empirical Evidence
Evidence to support the paper’s thesis can be about any aspect of
metaphors in political discourse. Relevant topics/issue areas that
could serve as the paper’s subject matter include, but are not
limited to, the following (i.e., this is only a partial list):
• Economic policy
• Social welfare issues
• Political participation via political parties, referenda,
interest groups, social movements, etc.
• Questions of identity including race, ethnicity, religion,
culture, language, etc.
• Political change
• Legislative politics
• Executive politics
• Law, justice matters, and the courts
• Relations among different branches of government
• Relations between central governments and regional governments
• Protest and revolution
• Foreign policy
• International relations
• War and international security
• International organizations/institutions/cooperation
• International economics and trade
• Global environmental issues
• Global human rights
• Foreign aid and global charitable organizations
Empirical evidence for the paper can be acquired simply by reading
daily news accounts of politics and policy. Additionally, students can
find ample information about politics and policy through books and
articles readily available in the Hatfield Library and online as well
as newspaper and other news organization archives also readily
available via library and online resources.
Theoretical background on metaphors in general and in politics can be
found in the assigned text for the class, however students are
encouraged to research other scholarly materials on the nature of
metaphors and their role in politics.
Organization
Analytical essays of the nature assigned for this course typically
adhere to some variation on the following organization:
• Introduction
• Brief statement of empirical issue to be explained
• Review of theoretical literature, i.e., schools of thought that
might explain the empirical issue
• Presentation of evidence, facts, and information
• Analysis of theoretical literature in light of evidence, facts,
and information
• Conclusion
Although, as noted above, there are variations on the standard outline
of an analytical essay, for this project the organization of the paper
probably would work best if it followed this order:
I. Introduction
A. Summary of the topic and thesis statement
II. The political or policy issue that will be studied and made
intelligible through an analysis of political metaphors
A. Brief description of whatever aspect of politics
is under investigation
III. Overview of theoretical literature on metaphors in general and
metaphors in politics
A. Course readings and other scholarly texts on
metaphors
IV. Evidence of how the conceptual metaphor chosen for the paper
influences politics
A. Description of the conceptual metaphor
B. Description of who articulates that conceptual
metaphor and for what reason
1. e.g., leaders, political
opponents, interest groups, social movements, outside experts,
revolutionaries, etc.
C. Description of how the conceptual metaphor is
formulated
D. Description of how the conceptual metaphor is
implemented
E. Description of how the conceptual metaphor shapes
politics and/or policy
F. Description of the influence and impact of the
conceptual metaphor on politics and/or policy
G. Description of how the metaphor is found in
comparable instances, cases, situations
V. Analysis
A. Reflection on how the study of this particular
conceptual metaphor furthers an understanding of the role of metaphors
in politics
B. Consideration of the broader use of this
particular conceptual metaphor in comparable instances, cases,
situations
VI. Conclusion
A. Implications for further study
Each draft of the paper should be divided into sections and the
sections should be indicated by descriptive subject headings specific
to each student’s own paper (e.g., not just generic headings in
the sample outline above).
Multiple Drafts
Three drafts (plus a peer editing draft) of the paper will be handed in
over the course of the semester. The paper represents a single
analytical and research project to be revised over the course of
multiple iterations. Therefore, the paper’s thesis could and
should be sharpened, revised, or even altered to take account of
additional research and analysis conducted after each draft.
Additionally, over the course of multiple drafts students should take
the opportunity to alter the order of sections or subsections to
accentuate the theoretical and empirical propositions and conclusions,
add or remove sources to the literature review, evaluate additional
existing claims, add or delete additional or unnecessary empirical
information, rectify errors of analysis in the evaluation section,
strengthen or clarify the introduction and/or conclusion, correct
errors of grammar and syntax and improve the prose.
Length
There is no required minimum or maximum length for each draft of the
paper. There is an old adage (variously attributed to Abraham Lincoln
or J. D. Salinger) that, in answer to the question “how long
should a man’s legs be?,” the answer is “long enough
to reach the ground.” In other words, each student’s paper
should be long enough to accomplish its task (no longer, and no
shorter). Having said that, it is most likely that a good first draft
will range between 2000 and 4000 words (7 to 13 pages), a good second
draft probably will fall into the 3000 to 5000 word range (10 to 17
pages), and a good final draft most will most likely run between 4000
to 6000 words (13 to 20 pages), all give or take. Each draft of the
paper should include a title (on a title page), an abstract, and a
bibliography.
Abstract
Each draft of the paper should be accompanied by an abstract that
precedes the main text. An abstract is a short (typically one
paragraph) summary of a paper and its findings. Most scholarly journals
include abstracts that accompany published articles. Students should
consult some scholarly journals of political science and related
disciplines to familiarize themselves with the standard method for
crafting a one-paragraph abstract.
Style
Students may use any accepted style (e.g., Chicago, MLA, etc.) in
formatting the paper. Students should ensure, however, that they use
whatever style they choose consistently throughout the paper.
Grading and Deadline
Because the main written work for this class is a research paper with
an extended period to complete it, assignments handed in late will be
assessed a third of a grade penalty for every day after the deadline
they are submitted (for example, an “A–” paper handed
in one day late will be marked down a third of a grade to a
“B+”). Papers are due no later than the start of class on
the day they are due (or the equivalent if the paper is due on a day on
which class is not regularly held). The only exceptions made will be
for serious illness.
Evaluation of Written Work
An excellent paper will demonstrate excellence in the following:
• It will be well written in terms of prose, grammar, and syntax.
• It will be well organized and follow a logical progression of
thoughts.
• It will have a clearly stated and cogent thesis.
• Its thesis will be supported by logical arguments.
• Its thesis will be balanced with counter-arguments and/or
competing explanations.
• It will cite relevant course readings and other material as
relevant.
• It will be illustrated with empirical examples and other factual
material as relevant.
• It will have the appropriate scope, i.e., not too narrow or
broad in focus.
• It will adopt an analytical (not partisan) tone unless otherwise
directed.
Grading Criteria
Generally speaking, when affixing grades to essays and other
assignments, the instructor will adhere to the qualitative assessments
associated with letter grades as specified in the CLA Catalog:
A = Excellent
B = Good
C = Satisfactory
D = Below Standard
F = Failing
See http://www.willamette.edu/cla/catalog/resources/policies/
Note on Originality
Everything you submit must be your own written work. You may not copy,
borrow, or appropriate other authors’ work, unless you are doing
so in the form of a cited quotation. All references to other
authors’ work must be fully documented in the form of citations
and/or footnotes, and direct quotes must be indicated as such with
quotation marks. Suspected cases of plagiarism will be pursued
vigorously and appropriate penalties (including an “F” for
the course) will be applied.
Willamette's
Plagiarism and Cheating Policy
Oral Presentation
In their oral presentations students should convey to the rest of the
class the themes developed in their papers. The purpose of the oral
presentation is to succinctly convey in speech the ideas that are laid
out in greater depth and detail in writing. One way to think about the
oral presentation is to imagine that you are explaining your project to
a reasonably well-educated person who has not taken this particular
class. Each section of the paper should be included in the oral
presentation (the presentation in most cases will follow the
organization of the paper), but technical details (particularly dealing
with theoretical material) in most cases should be simplified so that
someone who has not necessarily studied political discourse can still
make sense of the analytical perspectives that inform the paper’s
thesis.
Visual presentation software (e.g., Powerpoint, Prezi) may be used for
the oral presentation but is not required. If you do use visual
presentation software, remember that text-heavy slides typically are
not effective as they distract the audience. Keep it simple. Also, it
is each student’s responsibility to make sure files and devices
used for visual presentation are compatible with the electronic devices
installed in the classroom.